Finnish grammar reference

Finnish has 8 vowels, split into three groups that matter for vowel harmony (see below).

a

like "a" in "car"

o

like "o" in "more"

u

like "oo" in "boot"

e

like "e" in "bed"

i

like "i" in "pizza"

ä

like "a" in "cat"

ö

like the vowel sound in "her" or "fur"

y

round your lips for "oo" (as in "boot") but say "ee" (as in "see")

Every word is stressed on its first syllable, with no exceptions, which is a useful anchor when a word looks long and unfamiliar. Doubled letters are held roughly twice as long, and a handful of letters only ever show up in loanwords.

Double letters = long sound: tuli vs. tuuli

fire vs. wind: a doubled vowel or consonant is held about twice as long

Stress: HELsinki

never hel-SIN-ki

Always falls on the first syllable, with no exceptions.

Loanword-only letters: taksi, zoo

taxi, zoo

b, c, f, q, w, x, z, and å don't appear in native Finnish words; they show up only in loanwords and foreign names.

k, p, t are unaspirated: pieni, tuli, koti

small, fire, home

Unlike English, Finnish k, p, and t have no puff of air when pronounced. They're closer to how English says them mid-word (like the p in 'spin') than at the start of a word (like the p in 'pie').

This single rule explains why so many endings on this page come in pairs like -ssa/-ssä or -lla/-llä: within a simple native word, back vowels and front vowels normally do not mix. Neutral vowels (e, i) can go with either group. Compounds apply harmony within their parts, and loanwords may be exceptional.

Back vowels: talo → talossa

house → in the house

If a word contains any of these, its endings use the back-vowel variant.

Front vowels: kylä → kylässä

village → in the village

If a word contains any of these (and no back vowels), its endings use the front-vowel variant.

Neutral vowels: kirje → kirjeessä

letter → in the letter

These occur with either vowel group. When a simple word contains only e and i, it normally takes a front-vowel ending, as in kirjeessä.

Same ending, two forms: talossa vs. kylässä

in the house (back) vs. in the village (front)

Many endings containing a, o or u have corresponding front-vowel versions. Endings such as -n and -lle do not alternate this way. Choose an alternating ending according to vowel harmony, not its meaning.

Olla is the single most-used verb in Finnish. It's irregular, so it doesn't fit any of the 6 verb types on the Verbs tab, but it's worth learning before anything else, and it also builds the perfect tense and 'there is/are' sentences used throughout this page.

olen

minä

olet

sinä

on

hän

olemme

me

olette

te

ovat

he

en ole

minä

et ole

sinä

ei ole

hän

emme ole

me

ette ole

te

eivät ole

he

The neutral sentence order is subject, verb, object. But because case endings (not word order) mark who does what, Finnish word order is flexible and mainly used to shift emphasis rather than to change meaning.

Minä syön omenan.

I eat the apple.

Neutral order: subject, verb, object.

Minä asun Helsingissä.

I live in Helsinki.

Subject, verb, place.

Helsingissä minä asun.

It's in Helsinki that I live.

Case endings mark who does what, not word order, so fronting the place is still grammatical; it just shifts the emphasis onto Helsinki.

Tänään minä opiskelen suomea.

Today I'm studying Finnish.

Time expressions are very often placed first, and this is completely neutral, not emphatic.

A small set of fixed phrases covers almost every greeting situation you'll need day to day.

Hei

Hi (neutral, works almost anywhere)

Moi / Terve

Hi (informal)

Hyvää huomenta

Good morning

Hyvää päivää

Good day (a little more formal)

Hyvää iltaa

Good evening

Hyvää yötä

Good night

Näkemiin

Goodbye

Moikka / Heippa

Bye (informal)

Kiitos

Thank you

Ole hyvä

You're welcome / here you go

Anteeksi

Sorry / excuse me

Kyllä / Joo

Yes

Ei

No

These few sentences are usually the very first thing learners produce in Finnish, and they show up constantly in the speaking section of the exam.

Minä olen Anna.

I am Anna.

Nimeni on Anna.

My name is Anna.

Olen kotoisin Intiasta.

I am from India.

kotoisin + elative case (-sta/-stä) for the country you're 'coming from'.

Puhun vähän suomea.

I speak a little Finnish.

Mitä kuuluu?

How are you? (lit. "what's heard")

Kiitos, hyvää.

Thanks, good. A common reply to Mitä kuuluu?

Hauska tutustua.

Nice to meet you.

Finnish describes physical and emotional states with the same X:llä on pattern used for possession (see the Cases tab's Adessiivi entry), meaning 'at me there is hunger' instead of a verb like 'to be hungry'.

Minulla on nälkä.

I'm hungry.

Physical and emotional states very often use the same X:llä on ('at X there is') pattern as possession, with a plain noun in the nominative.

Minulla on jano.

I'm thirsty.

Minulla on kylmä.

I'm cold.

Minulla on kuuma.

I'm hot.

Minulla on kiire.

I'm in a hurry.

Minulla on ikävä sinua.

I miss you.

ikävä (longing) behaves almost like a verb here and takes its own partitive object: the person or thing you miss.

Minulla on hauskaa.

I'm having fun / a good time.

A related but different pattern: the adessive experiencer plus an adjective in the partitive, describing the experience itself rather than naming a state as a noun.

A plain reference list before the grammar of how numbers interact with case endings (covered on the Pronouns & Numbers tab).

nolla

0

yksi

1

kaksi

2

kolme

3

neljä

4

viisi

5

kuusi

6

seitsemän

7

kahdeksan

8

yhdeksän

9

kymmenen

10

yksitoista

11

kaksitoista

12

kolmetoista

13

neljätoista

14

viisitoista

15

kuusitoista

16

seitsemäntoista

17

kahdeksantoista

18

yhdeksäntoista

19

kaksikymmentä

20

Common colour words, useful vocabulary that doesn't fit neatly under any single grammar rule.

punainen

red

sininen

blue

vihreä

green

keltainen

yellow

musta

black

valkoinen

white

harmaa

grey

ruskea

brown

oranssi

orange

violetti

purple

Dictionary forms only. See the Time & Dates tab for the 'on Monday' (-na/-nä) form and full clock-time grammar.

The nominative is the plain dictionary form, with no ending in the singular, just -t in the plural. It marks the subject of a sentence, and it is also used for the object after an imperative or in a passive sentence, where a 'total object' would otherwise be expected.

Watch out: Don't assume every subject-looking word is nominative. After numbers above one, the apparent subject of an existential sentence often shifts to the partitive instead (see the Sentences tab).

Talo on suuri.

The house is big.

Opettaja opettaa.

The teacher teaches.

Avaa ovi!

Open the door! (object stays nominative after an imperative)

The genitive marks possession ('the house's door') and is also the case used before many postpositions, including kanssa, edessä and takana. By contrast, the preposition ennen takes the partitive after it. The genitive stem is a useful starting point for building several other case forms, so getting the genitive right early on, including any consonant gradation, pays off across the whole declension system.

Watch out: A possessive suffix normally follows the case ending: talossani (in my house). Some endings change or drop, as genitive -n does in taloni. Learn full forms rather than joining endings mechanically.

Talon ovi on auki.

The door of the house is open.

Opettajan kirja

The teacher's book

Pöydän alla

Under the table (postposition + genitive)

The partitive has several common uses: an unbounded quantity, an object under negation, an activity without an asserted endpoint, basic counting phrases after numbers above one, and complements of verbs such as odottaa and rakastaa. Repetition alone does not require a partitive object. Pitää in the meaning like instead takes an elative complement: pidän kahvista.

Watch out: Partitive vs total object is a classic exam trap: 'Ostan leivän' (the whole loaf, a bounded purchase) vs 'Ostan leipää' (some bread, an unclear or partial amount).

Juon kahvia.

I am drinking coffee (some, ongoing).

En syö leipää.

I don't eat bread (negative → partitive).

Kaksi kissaa.

Two cats (number + partitive singular).

A total object presents a bounded event or quantity. A singular noun often has genitive -n with a normal active personal verb, but nominative in commands, passive and necessity constructions. A plural noun total object is nominative plural. Personal pronouns have dedicated accusative forms such as minut and sinut. A present-tense total object can refer to an intended future result, not an action already completed.

Watch out: Compare directly with the partitive object: a total object presents a bounded event or quantity; a partitive can mark negation, unbounded quantity, an activity without an asserted endpoint or a verb-specific pattern.

Ostan leivän.

I buy the (whole) loaf of bread.

Luin kirjan.

I read the (whole) book.

Söin omenat.

I ate the apples (plural total object = nominative).

Means being inside or located in a static place: buildings, rooms, countries, and many abstract states (kokouksessa = in a meeting). It answers the question 'missä?' (where, at rest).

Watch out: Don't confuse with the illative (-Vn): inessive is about being there already, illative is about movement into the place.

Olen kaupassa.

I am in the shop.

Asun Suomessa.

I live in Finland.

Hän on kokouksessa.

He/she is in a meeting.

Means movement or origin out of an enclosed place, and is also required by a set of fixed verbs about a topic or feeling: pitää, puhua, kertoa, olla kiinnostunut. It answers 'mistä?' (from where / about what).

Watch out: Easy to mix up with the ablative (-lta): elative is for enclosed places and abstract topics, ablative is for surfaces and people.

Tulen kaupasta.

I am coming from the shop.

Pidän kahvista.

I like coffee. (fixed verb + elative)

Puhun työstä.

I talk about work.

Means movement into a place: buildings, countries, and abstract states. The exact ending depends on the word's stem: most words ending in a short vowel simply double it (talo → taloon, koti → kotiin); words already ending in a long vowel or diphthong add -h- before doubling it (maa → maahan, työ → työhön); and some long-vowel stems use -seen (vapaa → vapaaseen). Kysymys has the stem kysymykse- and the illative kysymykseen. Learn these stem patterns with examples.

Watch out: Frequently confused with the allative (-lle): the illative often marks an inward destination, while the allative can mark a surface, a recipient or an established place expression such as Tampereelle.

Menen kauppaan.

I am going to the shop.

Muutan Suomeen.

I'm moving to Finland.

Hän rakastui häneen.

He/she fell in love with him/her.

Means being on or at a surface or location, but it has two extra everyday uses: it is the case Finnish uses to express possession together with olla (minulla on = 'at me there is' = I have), and it also marks the instrument or means of transport used to do something (junalla = by train).

Watch out: The 'X:llä on Y' possession pattern is one of the very first sentence structures taught, and it's built entirely on this case. Don't try to translate 'have' with a verb.

Kirja on pöydällä.

The book is on the table.

Minulla on auto.

I have a car.

Matkustan junalla.

I travel by train.

Means movement off a surface or away from a person, the person/surface equivalent of the elative. It is also the case used for clock time ('at two o'clock' = kahdelta) and for asking something from someone (kysyä joltakin).

Watch out: Use the ablative for receiving something from a person (sain kirjeen opettajalta); use the elative for coming from an enclosed place (tulen kaupasta).

Sain kirjeen opettajalta.

I got a letter from the teacher.

Putosin tuolilta.

I fell off the chair.

Kysyn häneltä.

I ask him/her.

Means movement onto a surface, or giving/sending/saying something to a person, the person/surface equivalent of the illative.

Watch out: soittaa (call), antaa (give), lähettää (send), and kirjoittaa (write to) all take the allative when the target is a person, even though the action can feel like it's going 'into' someone.

Annan kirjan sinulle.

I give the book to you.

Soitan ystävälle.

I call a friend.

Laitoin kirjan pöydälle.

I put the book onto the table.

Describes a temporary role, state, or capacity that someone or something is currently in, meaning 'as a...'. It is also used for some fixed time expressions (lapsena = as a child / in childhood).

Watch out: Don't confuse with the translative (-ksi): essive is the role you are currently in, translative is the role you are becoming.

Hän työskentelee lääkärinä.

He/she works as a doctor.

Lapsena asuin Turussa.

As a child, I lived in Turku.

Ensimmäisenä päivänä

On the first day

Describes becoming something, a change of state, or a purpose or result, meaning 'into', 'to become', or 'for (a purpose)'.

Watch out: Pairs naturally with the essive as a before/after contrast: opiskelee lääkäriksi (training to become a doctor) vs työskentelee lääkärinä (currently working as a doctor).

Opiskelee lääkäriksi.

Studying to become a doctor.

Suomi muuttui itsenäiseksi.

Finland became independent.

Ostin lahjan hänelle syntymäpäiväksi.

I bought a gift for him/her for the birthday.

A less common case, often found in fixed adverbial expressions describing the manner or means of doing something. It almost never appears outside a small set of set phrases, so recognising a handful of them is more useful than trying to produce new ones.

Watch out: Start by recognising established expressions such as omin silmin. This study priority is not an official statement about what forms may appear in YKI.

Kävelin paljain jaloin.

I walked barefoot (with bare feet).

Hän selviytyi omin avuin.

He/she managed through his/her own efforts.

Omin silmin

With one's own eyes

Means 'without', the opposite of the comitative. In modern Finnish it survives mainly in formal/literary style and fixed expressions; everyday speech normally prefers ilman + partitive instead.

Watch out: ilman + partitive (ilman rahaa) is the everyday equivalent. The abessive case ending itself is mostly a written/formal register choice, not something you need to produce actively.

Rahatta ei pärjää.

One doesn't get by without money.

Luvatta ei saa mennä sisään.

You may not go in without permission.

Työtä tekemättä ei elämä muutu.

Life doesn't change without doing the work.

Means 'together with', 'accompanied by'. Formal/literary register. It uses the plural stem marker -ine- even with singular meaning. A noun in the comitative normally has a possessive suffix; an agreeing adjective does not take that suffix.

Watch out: Notice the difference between the modifier and the noun: uusine kirjoineen (with his/her new books). The noun has the possessive suffix; the agreeing adjective does not.

Hän saapui vaimoineen.

He arrived together with his wife.

Perheineen he muuttivat Ruotsiin.

Together with their family, they moved to Sweden.

Auto myytiin kaikkine varusteineen.

The car was sold with all its equipment.

Plurals add -t in the nominative, but the partitive plural and any other case form attaches directly to the plural stem (often -i-) instead. Adjectives must agree with the noun in both case and number.

Nominative plural: talo → talot

house → houses

Partitive plural: talo → taloja

(some) houses

Plural in a case: talo → taloissa

in the houses

Adjective agrees: isot talot

big houses

This is the single most exam-relevant case decision in Finnish: a finished action on a whole, definite thing takes the total object (genitive -n singular, nominative plural); negation, an unbounded quantity, an activity without an asserted endpoint, or a verb-specific pattern can require the partitive. Repetition alone does not determine the object case. Commands, passives and necessity constructions can use a nominative singular total object.

Total object: Ostan auton.

I buy the (whole) car.

Bounded event or quantity; completion may be intended rather than already achieved

Partial object: Ostan ruokaa.

I buy (some) food.

Part of something, or ongoing action

After negation: En osta autoa.

I don't buy a car.

The object under negation

Ongoing action: Luen kirjaa.

I am reading a book (ongoing, not yet finished).

An action still in progress, not yet finished, also takes the partitive object.

The partitive plural has more variation than any other case form, since its ending depends on the word's stem shape rather than one clean rule. The three families below cover most common nouns.

Watch out: When in doubt, learn a noun's plural partitive alongside its dictionary form, the same way you'd learn an irregular plural in English. Guessing the ending from a formula is unreliable here.

talo → taloja

house → (some) houses

The most common pattern: a stem ending in a single vowel takes -j- plus -a/-ä.

auto → autoja

car → (some) cars

nainen → naisia

woman → (some) women

-nen words swap to their -se-/-si- stem before the plural partitive ending, just like seen in other inflected forms, though the exact stem depends on number and case.

kieli → kieliä

language → (some) languages

Many stems already ending in -i take -ä directly, without an extra -j-.

Gradation changes consonants between strong and weak forms, especially k, p, t and clusters containing them. Syllable structure helps explain many patterns, but a simple open/closed-syllable rule has exceptions. Learn a word's useful stem forms together, such as kauppa, kaupan and kaupassa.

kk → k: kukka → kukan

a flower → of the flower

pp → p: kauppa → kaupan

a shop → of the shop

tt → t: tyttö → tytön

a girl → of the girl

k → (disappears): jalka → jalan

a leg → of the leg

p → v: leipä → leivän

bread → of the bread

t → d: katu → kadun

a street → of the street

nk → ng: Helsinki → Helsingin

Helsinki → of Helsinki

mp → mm: kampa → kamman

a comb → of the comb

nt → nn: ranta → rannan

a shore → of the shore

lt → ll: ilta → illan

an evening → of the evening

rt → rr: parta → parran

a beard → of the beard

Instead of a separate possessive pronoun before the noun (as in English 'my book'), Finnish usually attaches a possessive suffix directly to the end of the noun, after any case ending.

minun: kirjani

my book

sinun: kirjasi

your book

hänen: kirjansa

his / her book

meidän: kirjamme

our book

teidän: kirjanne

your (plural) book

heidän: kirjansa

their book

Finnish builds new words very freely by joining two or more existing words together. Only the last part (the head) takes case endings; everything before it stays in its dictionary or genitive form. This is one of the most useful reading skills at B1 to B2, since a long unfamiliar word is very often just two known words stuck together.

Watch out: Never decline every part of a compound: kirjahyllyssä (on the bookshelf) is correct, kirjassahyllyssä is not.

Determinative (modifier + head): kirjahylly

bookshelf (kirja + hylly)

The first part narrows down the meaning of the second (head) part, which carries the word's case ending.

Head takes the case ending: kirjahyllyssä

on the bookshelf (not kirjassahyllyssä)

Only the last part of a compound declines; the earlier parts stay in their dictionary/genitive form.

Modifier often in genitive: lastenkirja

children's book (lasten = children's + kirja)

The first part is frequently the genitive of a noun, especially for 'X's Y' type compounds.

Copulative compound (rare): suomalais-ruotsalainen

Finnish-Swedish

Both parts are equal partners rather than modifier + head, and this pattern is much rarer than determinative compounds.

Very productive pattern: kahvikuppi, ruokakauppa, aamupala

coffee cup, grocery store, breakfast

New compounds are created constantly and are usually understandable by combining the parts, even if you've never seen the whole word before.

Beyond case endings, Finnish uses a small set of highly productive suffixes to build new nouns, adjectives, and adverbs directly from other words, turning a verb into 'the person who does it', an adjective into an abstract noun, or a noun into 'made of' or 'without'.

-inen: puu → puinen

wood → wooden

Turns a noun into an adjective meaning 'made of / characterised by / related to', and it's extremely common and productive.

-uus / -yys: kaunis → kauneus

beautiful → beauty

Turns an adjective into an abstract noun describing the quality itself; vowel harmony decides -uus vs -yys.

-ja / -jä: opettaa → opettaja

to teach → teacher

Turns a verb into 'the person who does X', the same ending used for job titles built from verbs.

-ton / -tön: työ → työtön

work → unemployed (without work)

Turns a noun into an adjective meaning 'without X', the adjective opposite of -inen/-llinen.

-llinen: tarkoitus → tarkoituksellinen

purpose → intentional

A second common noun-to-adjective ending, often for more abstract nouns than plain -inen covers.

-sti: nopea → nopeasti

fast → quickly

See the Adjectives tab for the regular way to turn an adjective into an adverb.

-minen: lukea → lukeminen

to read → reading

See the Infinitives tab (IV infinitive), which turns any verb into a declinable abstract noun.

Drop the final vowel, then add the personal endings. The vowel often doubles in the third person singular.

puhun

Minä

puhut

Sinä

puhuu

Hän

puhumme

Me

puhutte

Te

puhuvat

He

Remove -da / -dä to find the stem, then add the endings. There is no doubling in the third person.

syön

Minä

syöt

Sinä

syö

Hän

syömme

Me

syötte

Te

syövät

He

Remove the last two letters, add -e-, then the personal endings.

tulen

Minä

tulet

Sinä

tulee

Hän

tulemme

Me

tulette

Te

tulevat

He

Replace final -ta/-tä with -a/-ä, then add the personal ending: haluta to halua- to haluan. The third-person form is haluaa. Check gradation and exceptions with the verb.

haluan

Minä

haluat

Sinä

haluaa

Hän

haluamme

Me

haluatte

Te

haluavat

He

Remove the final -ta / -tä and add -tse- before the endings: tarvita → tarvitsen.

tarvitsen

Minä

tarvitset

Sinä

tarvitsee

Hän

tarvitsemme

Me

tarvitsette

Te

tarvitsevat

He

Remove -ta / -tä and add -ne- before the endings: vanheta → vanhenen.

vanhenen

Minä

vanhenet

Sinä

vanhenee

Hän

vanhenemme

Me

vanhenette

Te

vanhenevat

He

Negation in Finnish is built with a conjugated negation verb (en, et, ei...) followed by an unchanging verb stem. The perfect and pluperfect both use a form of olla plus the same past participle that also doubles as an adjective. Only the tense of olla changes between them.

en puhu

Minä

et puhu

Sinä

ei puhu

Hän

emme puhu

Me

ette puhu

Te

eivät puhu

He

puhuin

Minä

puhuit

Sinä

puhui

Hän

puhuimme

Me

puhuitte

Te

puhuivat

He

olen puhunut

Minä

olet puhunut

Sinä

on puhunut

Hän

olemme puhuneet

Me

olette puhuneet

Te

ovat puhuneet

He

olin puhunut

Minä

olit puhunut

Sinä

oli puhunut

Hän

olimme puhuneet

Me

olitte puhuneet

Te

olivat puhuneet

He

Necessity uses a genitive subject (minun, sinun, hänen...) plus täytyy or pitää and the basic infinitive. Modal verbs such as voida, osata, saada, and haluta are also followed directly by the basic infinitive.

Minun täytyy mennä.

I have to go. (genitive subject + täytyy + infinitive)

Sinun pitää opiskella.

You must study.

Hänen ei tarvitse maksaa.

He / she doesn't have to pay. (negative)

Minun on pakko lähteä.

I really must leave.

Voin auttaa sinua.

I can help you. (voida = can / be able to)

Osaan puhua suomea.

I can speak Finnish. (osata = know how to)

Saanko tulla mukaan?

May I come along? (saada = be allowed to)

Haluan oppia lisää.

I want to learn more. (haluta + infinitive)

The basic, dictionary form of a verb. It is used directly after modal and necessity verbs (voida, osata, haluta, aikoa, täytyy, pitää), with no extra case ending.

Watch out: After these particular verbs, use the dictionary-form infinitive. Other governing verbs need different infinitive forms, so learn the two-verb frame together.

Haluan puhua suomea.

I want to speak Finnish.

Aion mennä kotiin.

I intend to go home.

Built on the verb stem + -essa/-essä, this expresses 'while doing something'. When the understood person is shared with the main clause, a possessive suffix can identify it: syödessäni. A separate genitive agent is also possible, as in lasten syödessä; a personal-pronoun agent normally combines with the matching possessive suffix, hänen tullessaan.

Watch out: Common in formal written texts and news reports for compressing a time clause into one word: hänen tullessaan (when he/she arrives) instead of a full kun-clause.

Syödessäni katson telkkaria.

While I eat, I watch TV.

Hänen tullessaan ovi avautui.

When he/she arrived, the door opened.

Odottaessamme bussia juttelimme.

While we waited for the bus, we chatted.

Built on the verb stem + -massa/-mässä, paired with olla, this describes being in the middle of doing something, literally 'in the doing'.

Olen lukemassa kirjaa.

I am (in the middle of) reading a book.

Hän on nukkumassa.

He/she is sleeping (right now).

Pairs with tulla (to come) to describe coming from doing something, the 'source' counterpart of -massa.

Tulen ostamasta ruokaa.

I'm coming from buying food.

Hän tuli juoksemasta.

He/she came from running.

Pairs with verbs of movement (mennä, tulla, lähteä) to describe going somewhere in order to do something.

Watch out: Very common in everyday speech and writing. Don't substitute the I infinitive here (menen ostaa is wrong; menen ostamaan is correct).

Menen ostamaan ruokaa.

I'm going to buy food.

Lähdimme uimaan.

We went off to swim.

Expresses the means or manner of doing something, meaning 'by doing X'. This is one of the most useful patterns for explaining how you achieved something in a writing task.

Opin suomea lukemalla.

I learn Finnish by reading.

Hän paransi terveyttään liikkumalla enemmän.

He/she improved their health by exercising more.

The negative counterpart of -malla, describing doing (or not doing) something without first doing another action.

Lähdin sanomatta mitään.

I left without saying anything.

Hän selvisi vahingoittumatta.

He/she got through unharmed.

Turns a verb into a noun that then declines like any other noun. Very common in instructions, signs, and abstract statements about an activity in general.

Lukeminen on hyödyllistä.

Reading is useful.

Tupakoiminen on kielletty.

Smoking is forbidden.

Turns a verb into an adjective meaning 'who/that does X', compressing a whole relative clause ('a boy who reads') into a single word ('lukeva poika').

Suomea puhuva mies

A man who speaks Finnish

Itkevä lapsi

A crying child

The same ending used to build the perfect tense (olen puhunut), but used here as a standalone adjective meaning 'who/that did/has done X' or describing something that has already happened.

Mennyt aika

Past time / a bygone era

Kadonnut kissa

A lost / disappeared cat

Describes something that has had an action done to it, the passive counterpart of -nut/-nyt.

Kirjoitettu kirja

A written book

Suljettu ovi

A closed door

Describes something made or done by a specific agent, who is expressed in a genitive phrase or by an appropriate possessive construction: '[agent]-n [verb]-ma noun'.

Watch out: An agent participle needs an identifiable agent, expressed as a genitive or in an appropriate possessive construction. Learn complete phrases such as opettajan kirjoittama kirja and kirjoittamani kirja rather than using kirjoittama alone.

Äidin tekemä ruoka

Food made by mother

Opettajan kirjoittama kirja

A book written by the teacher

Describes something that should, can, or needs to be done, and it's very common in instructions, recommendations, and official notices.

Luettava kirja

A book worth reading / to be read

Muistettava asia

A thing to remember

Some verbs commonly take a partitive object in their ordinary meanings, such as odottaa and rakastaa. Other examples here, including katsoa, allow object-case alternation: katson elokuvaa presents an activity, while katson elokuvan presents a bounded viewing. Learn both the verb's meaning and the event perspective.

Rakastan sinua.

I love you. (rakastaa)

Odotan bussia.

I wait for the bus. (odottaa)

Autan ystävää.

I help a friend. (auttaa)

Katson elokuvaa.

I watch a film. (katsoa)

Kuuntelen musiikkia.

I listen to music. (kuunnella)

Ajattelen kotia.

I think about home. (ajatella)

These particular meanings use an elative complement: pitää kahvista, puhua säästä, olla kiinnostunut historiasta. A different complement can express a different relation: puhun suomea means I speak Finnish, while puhun suomesta means I talk about Finnish. Do not call every complement an object.

Pidän kahvista.

I like coffee. (pitää)

Tykkään tästä.

I like this. (tykätä)

Puhun säästä.

I talk about the weather. (puhua)

Kerron lomasta.

I tell about the holiday. (kertoa)

Olen kiinnostunut historiasta.

I'm interested in history. (olla kiinnostunut)

Verbs of movement, getting to know, joining, or falling for someone/something take the illative case, meaning 'into' the place, group, or person.

Menen kauppaan.

I go to the shop.

Tutustun ihmisiin.

I get to know people.

Liityn ryhmään.

I join the group.

Vastaan kysymykseen.

I answer the question.

Rakastuin häneen.

I fell in love with him/her.

Uskon itseeni.

I believe in myself.

Verbs that direct something towards a person (calling, giving, writing to, sending) take the allative case on that person, not the illative.

Soitan äidille.

I call mum.

Annan kirjan opettajalle.

I give the book to the teacher.

Kirjoitan ystävälle.

I write to a friend.

The most common rektio mix-up: mennä uses the destination form established for its place expression, while soittaa, antaa, and kirjoittaa take the allative when the target is a person, even though both can feel like 'going to' something in English.

Watch out: Moving to a place uses its established destination form: muutan Suomeen, muutan Helsinkiin, but muutan Tampereelle. Learn the case family with the place name.

Menen kauppaan.

I go to the shop (into the building).

Annan kirjan opettajalle.

I give the book to the teacher (a person, not a place).

Soitan ystävälle.

I call a friend. Never 'ystävään'.

Muutan Suomeen.

I'm moving to Finland, a place, so illative.

Not every verb fits the big partitive/elative/illative groups; käydä (to visit/go to and come back) commonly uses the place's location form: käyn kaupassa, käyn torilla. The case can be inessive or adessive according to the established place expression.

Käyn lääkärissä.

I visit / go to the doctor.

Käyn kaupassa.

I'm going to the shop (and coming back).

A smaller group of expressions govern the genitive on their complement, most notably necessity structures (see the Verb Conjugation tab) and a handful of fixed postposition-like verb phrases.

Minun täytyy lähteä.

I have to leave. (genitive subject + täytyy)

Sinun kannattaa levätä.

It's worth your while to rest. (genitive + kannattaa)

Tämä on isäni auto.

This is my father's car. (possession, genitive)

Muuttua and ryhtyä can take a translative result or role: muuttui kylmäksi, ryhtyi yrittäjäksi. The common hänestä tuli lääkäri construction instead uses an elative person and nominative role. Do not force every becoming sentence into the same case pattern.

Hänestä tuli lääkäri.

He/she became a doctor. (hänestä tuli + nominative; a different becoming construction)

Sää muuttui kylmäksi.

The weather turned cold. (muuttua + translative)

Hän ryhtyi yrittäjäksi.

He/she took up work as an entrepreneur. (ryhtyä + translative)

Add -isi- between the verb stem and the personal ending to form the conditional, which softens requests and statements into a more polite, hedged form, much like 'would' in English. Example: Haluaisin kahvia. (I would like some coffee.)

puhuisin

Minä

puhuisit

Sinä

puhuisi

Hän

puhuisimme

Me

puhuisitte

Te

puhuisivat

He

The imperative gives a direct command or instruction. The singular form is just the bare verb stem; the plural/formal form adds -kaa/-kää. Negative commands use älä (singular) or älkää (plural) plus a special negative imperative stem.

Puhu!

Speak! (to one person)

Älä puhu!

Don't speak!

Puhukaa!

Speak! (plural or formal)

Älkää puhuko!

Don't speak! (plural or formal)

Mennään!

Let's go!

The Finnish passive describes an action without naming who does it, meaning 'one speaks' rather than 'X speaks'. In spoken Finnish it is also used colloquially as a substitute for the 'we' form.

puhutaan

one speaks / is spoken (colloquially: we speak)

puhuttiin

one spoke / was spoken

ei puhuta

one does not speak

Suomessa puhutaan suomea.

Finnish is spoken in Finland.

The passive has the same four tenses as personal verbs. Perfect and pluperfect passive are built exactly like the personal perfect/pluperfect (see the Verb Conjugation tab), but with olla staying in its 3rd-person-singular-style passive form and the past passive participle (-tu/-ty) instead of a personal past participle.

on puhuttu: Täällä on puhuttu suomea kauan.

Finnish has been spoken here for a long time.

olla (present) + past passive participle (-tu/-ty), meaning 'has been spoken/done'.

ei ole puhuttu: Asiasta ei ole puhuttu.

The matter has not been discussed.

Negate with ei + ole, exactly like the personal perfect tense.

oli puhuttu: Ennen kokousta asiasta oli jo puhuttu.

Before the meeting, the matter had already been discussed.

olla (past) + past passive participle, meaning 'had been spoken/done', describing a passive event before another past moment.

ei ollut puhuttu: Asiasta ei ollut puhuttu ennen kokousta.

The matter had not been discussed before the meeting.

Negate the pluperfect passive with ei + ollut, matching the personal pluperfect pattern.

A fourth mood alongside the indicative, conditional, and imperative, expressing a cautious guess, meaning 'probably is/does'. It is rare in modern spoken Finnish (largely replaced by varmaan/kai + normal tense) but does appear in news writing, literature, and some fixed expressions, so it's worth recognising even though you won't need to produce it often.

Watch out: For YKI speaking and writing, prefer varmaan/kai + the normal tense. The potential mood itself is recognition-level, not an active production target.

lienee: Hän lienee kotona.

He/she is probably at home.

The potential mood expresses a cautious guess or supposition, meaning 'probably is / might be'. It survives mainly in formal, literary, or news-style Finnish; everyday speech uses varmaan/kai + normal tense instead.

mennee: Hän mennee kotiin pian.

He/she will probably go home soon.

Any verb can form the potential with -ne-, though lienee (from olla) is by far the most commonly seen example.

-ne-: Sataa, joten kokous lienee peruttu.

It's raining, so the meeting has probably been cancelled.

Built with -ne- between the stem and the personal ending, with its own gradation/vowel rules. For an everyday study plan, recognition is a useful starting goal; this is not an official restriction on what may appear in YKI.

varmaan / kai + normal tense: Hän on varmaan kotona.

He/she is probably at home. (everyday version of lienee kotona)

The natural spoken alternative to the potential mood, and this is what you should actually produce yourself.

Most adjectives form the comparative with -mpi and the superlative with -in, but a handful of very common adjectives (hyvä, paljon) are irregular. 'Than' is expressed with kuin.

iso → isompi → isoin

big → bigger → biggest

nopea → nopeampi → nopein

fast → faster → fastest

kaunis → kauniimpi → kaunein

beautiful → more → most beautiful

hyvä → parempi → paras

good → better → best

huono → huonompi → huonoin

bad → worse → worst

paljon → enemmän → eniten

much → more → most

Equality is expressed with yhtä before the adjective, followed by kuin, rather than the comparative form. For quantities and types, saman verran kuin and samanlainen kuin do the same job.

yhtä... kuin: Hän on yhtä pitkä kuin minä.

He/she is as tall as me.

Equal comparison: 'as... as'.

saman verran kuin: Ansaitsen saman verran kuin sinä.

I earn the same amount as you.

Used for quantities: 'the same amount as'.

samanlainen kuin: Hänen autonsa on samanlainen kuin minun.

His/her car is the same kind as mine.

Used for similarity in type/kind.

ei ole yhtä... kuin: Tämä ei ole yhtä helppoa kuin luulin.

This isn't as easy as I thought.

Negating yhtä...kuin gives 'not as... as'.

Most adjectives become adverbs by adding -sti to their stem (nopea → nopeasti). A few common ones are irregular, most notably hyvä → hyvin (well), not 'hyvästi', which actually means 'farewell'.

nopea → nopeasti

fast (adj) → fast / quickly (adv)

hidas → hitaasti

slow → slowly

selvä → selvästi

clear → clearly

varovainen → varovaisesti

careful → carefully

hyvä → hyvin

good → well (not 'hyvästi', which means 'farewell')

paljon / vähän

a lot / a little (already adverbs)

Like nouns, Finnish adjectives fall into a handful of stem-change families that decide exactly how the ending attaches. Recognising which family an adjective belongs to is what lets you predict its case forms instead of memorising each one individually.

Vowel-stem type: iso → ison → isossa

big → big's / of big → in [the] big [one]

The largest, most regular group, with no stem swap beyond normal consonant gradation. Most new and borrowed adjectives follow this pattern.

-nen type: suomalainen → suomalaisen → suomalaisessa

Finnish → Finnish's → in [the] Finnish [one]

Many -nen words use an -se- stem in forms such as suomalaisen and suomalaisessa. The singular partitive has a different shape, suomalainen to suomalaista, so do not apply -se- before every ending.

-s type (i-stem): kaunis → kauniin → kauniissa

beautiful → beautiful's → in [the] beautiful [one]

The kaunis family has a long-vowel stem in forms such as kauniin and kauniissa, but the partitive is kaunista. Other -s words have different patterns.

Agreement with the noun: isoissa taloissa

in big houses (both words in inessive plural)

Most describing adjectives agree with their noun in case and number. Some indeclinable modifiers are exceptions. Agreement means the same grammatical form, not necessarily identical letters.

Predicate adjectives agree too: Talot ovat isoja.

The houses are big. (plural partitive agreement, not just plural nominative)

A predicate adjective has its own case rules. A countable singular subject commonly takes nominative (talo on iso), while a plural subject often takes plural partitive (talot ovat isoja). It does not simply copy the subject's case.

Finnish personal pronouns don't mark gender at all; hän covers both 'he' and 'she'. In casual speech, se and ne are also commonly used for people.

minä

I

sinä

you (singular)

hän

he / she

me

we

te

you (plural or formal)

he

they

Demonstratives distinguish three distances rather than English's two: tämä (near the speaker), tuo (far from both), and se (already known or just mentioned).

tämä

this (near me)

tuo

that (over there)

se

it / that

nämä

these

nuo

those

ne

they / those

Several question words are built from the same root with different case endings: missä/mihin/mistä follow exactly the inessive/illative/elative pattern from the Cases tab.

kuka

who

mikä

what / which

missä

where (in)

mihin

where to

mistä

where from / about what

milloin

when

miksi

why

miten / kuinka

how

kuinka paljon

how much / how many

Joka introduces a clause that describes a specific noun ('the man who lives here'), while mikä refers back to a whole previous clause or idea.

joka

who / which (refers to a noun): mies, joka asuu täällä

mikä

which (refers to a whole clause or to mikä/se)

jonka

whose / that (genitive of joka): kirja, jonka luin

jossa

in which / where (inessive of joka): talo, jossa asun

Cardinal numbers above one require the noun they count to switch to the partitive singular: viisi kissaa (five cats), not viisi kissat.

yksi

1

kaksi

2

kolme

3

neljä

4

viisi

5

kuusi

6

seitsemän

7

kahdeksan

8

yhdeksän

9

kymmenen

10

sata

100

tuhat

1000

Ordinal numbers behave like regular adjectives and take whatever case the noun they describe is in: ensimmäisellä kerralla (the first time).

ensimmäinen

1st

toinen

2nd

kolmas

3rd

neljäs

4th

viides

5th

Quantity words have different constructions. Monta ystävää uses singular partitive; paljon ystäviä uses plural partitive; muutama ystävä uses nominative singular. Inflect the phrase according to its role, as in ostin muutaman omenan.

paljon: Minulla on paljon työtä.

I have a lot of work.

'a lot of', always followed by the partitive case.

vähän: Minulla on vähän aikaa.

I have a little time.

'a little / not much', also followed by the partitive.

muutama: Ostin muutaman omenan.

I bought a few apples.

In muutama omena, the noun is nominative singular. The object phrase muutaman omenan is genitive singular. Do not confuse this with monta omenaa or muutamia omenoita.

monta / monia: Hänellä on monta ystävää.

He/she has many friends.

Monta is itself a partitive form of moni and commonly takes a singular partitive noun: monta ystävää. Monia takes a plural partitive noun: monia ystäviä.

kaikki: Söin kaiken ruoan.

I ate all the food.

'all / everything'.

muutamia / joitakin: Näin joitakin ystäviä.

I saw some friends.

'some / a few' (plural).

Finnish has no standalone word for 'myself/yourself/himself'; itse takes a possessive suffix matching the subject instead. 'Each other' is expressed with toisiaan, built from toinen (other).

itse + possessive suffix: Katson itseäni peilistä.

I look at myself in the mirror.

The reflexive pronoun itse takes the case required in its clause and a possessive suffix identifying the person: itseäni, itselleni, itseni.

itsensä: Hän satutti itsensä.

He/she hurt himself/herself.

Itsensä is a third-person reflexive form for a total object. Other case roles need forms such as itseään or itselleen. Context identifies a singular or plural referent.

oma + possessive suffix: Ajan omalla autollani.

I drive with my own car.

oma ('own') also takes a possessive suffix to emphasise ownership by the subject.

toisiaan / toinen toistaan: He auttavat toisiaan.

They help each other.

'each other', built from toinen (other), inflected and often doubled for emphasis.

keskenään: He puhuivat asiasta keskenään.

They talked about it among themselves.

A fixed adverbial form meaning 'among/between themselves', often paired with reciprocal actions.

Words like joku (someone), jokin (something), kukaan/mikään (anyone/anything, negative-context only), jokainen (every), and molemmat (both) round out the pronoun system for talking about unspecified people, things, and quantities.

Watch out: Kukaan and mikään are common under negation and in questions. They also occur in other non-assertive contexts, such as some conditional clauses. For an ordinary affirmative someone/something, use joku/jokin.

joku: Joku soitti sinulle.

Someone called you.

Refers to an unspecified person; declines like a normal pronoun (jonkun, jotakuta...).

jokin: Jokin on vialla.

Something is wrong.

The thing-equivalent of joku, for unspecified objects or ideas rather than people.

kukaan / mikään: Kukaan ei tullut.

No one came.

Common in negative sentences and questions; also possible in some conditional or other non-assertive contexts. Learn affirmative joku/jokin separately.

jokainen: Jokainen opiskelija sai kirjan.

Every student got a book.

Always grammatically singular, even though the meaning covers a whole group one by one.

molemmat: Molemmat lapset nukkuvat.

Both children are sleeping.

Always plural, referring to exactly two of something.

kumpikin: Kumpikin sai oman huoneen.

Each of the two got their own room.

Similar to molemmat but grammatically singular, emphasising each one individually rather than the pair together.

toinen: Anna minulle toinen kuppi.

Give me another cup.

Also doubles as an ordinal number ('second'), and context decides the meaning.

muu / muut: Osa tuli, muut jäivät kotiin.

Some came, the others stayed home.

Refers to remaining items not already mentioned, distinct from toinen's 'the other one of two'.

Beyond 0 to 20, Finnish numbers are written as single compound words, hundreds/thousands follow predictable patterns, and fractions/decimals use their own small set of rules, including a comma, not a period, as the decimal point.

kaksikymmentäyksi

21 (kaksikymmentä + yksi, written as one word)

sata

100

satayksi

101 (written as one word, like other compound numbers)

kaksisataa

200

tuhat

1,000

miljoona

1,000,000

puoli: puoli kiloa

half a kilo

'half', taking a partitive noun after it, and also appearing in clock time (puoli neljä).

puolikas: Söin omenan puolikkaan.

I ate half of the apple (the apple's half).

The noun form for a physical half of something, as opposed to the quantifier puoli.

yksi kolmasosa: Kolme neljäsosaa piirakasta on jäljellä.

Three quarters of the pie are left.

Fractions are built as cardinal + ordinal-osa ('nth part'): 'one third'.

desimaali: pilkku: 3,5 (kolme pilkku viisi)

3.5 (three point five)

Finnish uses a comma, not a period, as the decimal separator, and the digit after it is read individually.

Add the question clitic -ko/-kö to whichever word is being questioned and move it to the front of the sentence. Answer with the verb itself rather than a separate word for 'yes' or 'no'.

Puhutko suomea?

Do you speak Finnish?

Asutko Helsingissä?

Do you live in Helsinki?

Puhun. / En puhu.

I do. / I don't.

For 'who/what/where/when/why/how' questions, the question word simply starts the sentence and the rest keeps normal statement word order, with no extra clitic needed, unlike yes/no questions.

Missä sinä asut?

Where do you live?

The question word starts the sentence; the rest keeps normal statement word order.

Mitä sinä teet?

What are you doing?

Kuka tuo on?

Who is that?

Milloin juna lähtee?

When does the train leave?

Miksi olet myöhässä?

Why are you late?

ei -ko/-kö tarvita: Missä asut?

Where do you live? (ordinary neutral question)

An ordinary neutral question-word question does not need -ko/-kö. Special echo questions can use forms such as Missäkö, so this is a neutral-question pattern rather than a ban on every possible use.

Unlike English prepositions, Finnish postpositions come after the noun they govern, and that noun takes the genitive case: talon edessä (in front of the house), literally 'house's in-front'.

talon edessä

in front of the house

pöydän alla

under the table

pöydän päällä

on top of the table

kaupan takana

behind the shop

talon lähellä

near the house

minun kanssani

with me

Finnish is overwhelmingly a postposition language, but it does have a handful of true prepositions: words like ennen and ilman that come BEFORE the noun instead of after, usually governing the partitive.

ennen + partitive: ennen kokousta

before the meeting

One of the handful of genuine Finnish prepositions: it comes BEFORE the noun, unlike the postpositions above which come after.

ilman + partitive: ilman rahaa

without money

paitsi: kaikki paitsi sinä

everyone except you

per + nominative: kaksi euroa per henkilö

two euros per person

Unusually for a Finnish adposition, per takes the plain nominative rather than a case ending.

These link clauses and ideas together and are essential for writing tasks above the most basic level. Using koska/sillä, vaikka, and siksi/joten instead of always relying on ja signals a more developed argument structure.

ja

and

mutta

but

tai / vai

or

koska / sillä

because

että

that

jos

if

kun

when

vaikka

although

siksi / joten

therefore / so

A small set of endings attach directly to a word (not just verbs) to add emphasis, inclusion, or tone rather than changing its case. -kin/-kaan/-kään mean 'also/too/even' (positive vs. negative contexts); -han/-hän softens a statement into a reminder or gentle emphasis.

-kin: Minäkin tulen.

I'm coming too.

Attaches directly to the word being added or emphasised; unlike most endings it never changes with vowel harmony.

-kin (even): Hänkin osaa jo puhua suomea.

Even he/she can already speak Finnish.

Depending on context -kin can read as 'even' rather than 'also'.

-kaan / -kään: En minäkään tule.

I'm not coming either.

Used instead of -kin in negative sentences and questions, meaning 'either / neither / even'. This one does follow vowel harmony: -kaan for back-vowel words, -kään for front.

-kaan / -kään (not even): Minulla ei ole aikaakaan.

I don't even have time.

Also covers 'not even' inside a negative sentence.

-han / -hän: Sehän on hyvä idea.

That's a good idea, isn't it.

Adds a tone of reminder, mild emphasis, or politeness, roughly 'you know', 'isn't it', or a gentle nudge. Also follows vowel harmony: -han back, -hän front.

-han / -hän (reminder): Muistathan soittaa minulle.

You will remember to call me, won't you.

Very common in polite requests and reminders.

When a sentence introduces something new, the location phrase comes first, then 'on'/'oli', then the subject, which often shifts to the partitive when the amount is unclear or plural.

Pöydällä on kirja.

There is a book on the table.

Existential sentence: a locative phrase (where) comes first, then 'on', then the subject in the nominative or partitive.

Pöydällä on kirjoja.

There are (some) books on the table.

With an uncountable/plural amount, the subject takes the partitive instead of the nominative.

Huoneessa ei ole ketään.

There is no one in the room.

Negative existential sentences always take the partitive subject.

Kirja on pöydällä.

The book is on the table.

Compare: when the known thing comes first, it's a normal statement, not an existential sentence. Word order changes the emphasis.

Unlike English, Finnish does not shift the verb tense back when reporting what someone said. The original tense is kept after että.

Hän sanoi, että hän tulee.

He/she said that he/she is coming.

Reported statement: main verb + että + the reported clause. Finnish does not backshift tense the way English does.

Hän kysyi, tulenko minä.

He/she asked whether I am coming.

Reported yes/no question: add -ko/-kö to the verb inside the että-less question clause.

Hän kysyi, missä asun.

He/she asked where I live.

Reported question word question: keep the question word, no että needed.

Hän väitti, ettei hän tiennyt mitään.

He/she claimed that he/she didn't know anything.

Negative reported clauses often contract että + ei → ettei.

A relative clause describes a noun by turning a full sentence into a description clipped onto it, like 'the man who lives here' instead of two separate sentences. joka is used for a specific noun; mikä is used when referring back to a whole idea, an indefinite pronoun, or a superlative instead of one concrete thing.

Watch out: joka/mikä both decline through every case exactly like any other pronoun. The case is decided by the clause's own verb, not by the case of the noun being described.

joka: Mies, joka asuu täällä, on opettaja.

The man who lives here is a teacher.

Introduces a clause describing a specific noun, agreeing with it in number but taking whatever case the relative clause itself requires, not the case of the noun it describes.

jonka: Nainen, jonka auto on punainen, on naapurini.

The woman whose car is red is my neighbour.

The genitive of joka, used when the relative clause needs a possessive/'whose' meaning.

jossa / johon / josta: Talo, jossa asun, on vanha.

The house I live in is old.

joka declines through all the same cases as any noun. Here it's in the inessive, illative, and elative, matching the verb's case requirement inside the clause.

mikä: Hän myöhästyi, mikä harmitti minua.

He/she was late, which annoyed me.

Used instead of joka when the relative clause refers back to a whole previous clause, an indefinite pronoun (jokin, kaikki), or a superlative, rather than a single concrete noun.

comma before the relative clause: Kirja, jonka luin, oli hyvä.

The book that I read was good.

Finnish always places a comma before (and after, if the sentence continues) a relative clause. Unlike English, this is not optional.

jotta states a goal or intention ('so that'); koska and sillä both give a reason ('because'), with koska being the everyday default and sillä a more formal/written alternative that can't start a sentence.

jotta: Opiskelen suomea, jotta saisin työpaikan.

I study Finnish so that I can get a job.

Introduces a purpose clause. The verb inside is often in the conditional when the purpose is hypothetical/hoped-for, though present tense is also common.

jotta ei / jottei: Puhun hitaasti, jottei hän eksy.

I speak slowly so that he/she doesn't get lost.

The negative form contracts jotta + ei into jottei, similar to että + ei → ettei.

koska: En tullut, koska olin sairas.

I didn't come because I was sick.

The default, neutral way to give a reason, and it works in both speech and writing.

sillä: Hän ei vastannut, sillä hän nukkui.

He/she didn't answer, for he/she was asleep.

A more formal/written alternative to koska, common in essays and news text; unlike koska it cannot start a sentence.

koska (standalone): Miksi lähdit? Koska halusin.

Why did you leave? Because I wanted to.

koska can answer a miksi-question on its own, without repeating the whole clause, similar to English 'because [reasons]'.

vaikka contrasts an unexpected outcome ('although'); jos builds a condition ('if'), switching to the conditional mood in both clauses when the condition is clearly hypothetical rather than a real possibility.

vaikka: Menen ulos, vaikka sataa.

I'm going out although it's raining.

Introduces a clause that contrasts with the main clause's expected outcome.

vaikka + conditional: En menisi sinne, vaikka voittaisin lipun.

I wouldn't go there even if I won a ticket.

Combined with the conditional mood, vaikka expresses 'even if' rather than a real, current contrast.

jos: Jos sataa, jään kotiin.

If it rains, I'll stay home.

The standard conditional conjunction; the verb in the jos-clause can be present (real/likely condition) or conditional mood (hypothetical/unlikely condition).

jos + conditional mood: Jos voittaisin lotossa, ostaisin talon.

If I won the lottery, I would buy a house.

Both clauses typically shift to the conditional mood for a clearly hypothetical or contrary-to-fact condition.

ellei / jollei: Ellei sada, menemme ulos.

Unless it rains, we'll go outside.

The negative conditional conjunction, contracting jos + ei into a single word instead of jos ei. The verb after it takes the same connegative (bare-stem) form as after any other negation.

Finnish clock time counts towards the next hour rather than the last one (puoli neljä is half past three), and the hour itself takes the ablative case (-lta/-ltä).

Kello on yksi.

It's one o'clock.

Kello on puoli neljä.

It's half past three (3:30). 'Puoli' counts towards the next hour.

vartin yli kaksi

quarter past two (2:15)

varttia vaille kolme

quarter to three (2:45)

Mihin aikaan?

At what time?

Kahdelta.

At two o'clock. (ablative -lta)

To say 'on' a day, the day name takes the essive case (-na/-nä): maanantaina, literally 'as Monday'.

maanantai: maanantaina

Monday (on Monday)

tiistai: tiistaina

Tuesday

keskiviikko: keskiviikkona

Wednesday

torstai: torstaina

Thursday

perjantai: perjantaina

Friday

lauantai: lauantaina

Saturday

sunnuntai: sunnuntaina

Sunday

To say 'in' a month, the month name takes the inessive case (-ssa/-ssä): tammikuussa, literally 'inside January'.

tammikuu: tammikuussa

January (in January)

helmikuu: helmikuussa

February

maaliskuu: maaliskuussa

March

huhtikuu: huhtikuussa

April

toukokuu: toukokuussa

May

kesäkuu: kesäkuussa

June

heinäkuu: heinäkuussa

July

elokuu: elokuussa

August

syyskuu: syyskuussa

September

lokakuu: lokakuussa

October

marraskuu: marraskuussa

November

joulukuu: joulukuussa

December

These frequency and relative-time words appear in almost every listening exercise and writing task that describes a routine or a sequence of events.

tänään

today

huomenna

tomorrow

eilen

yesterday

ylihuomenna

the day after tomorrow

viime viikolla

last week

ensi viikolla

next week

tällä viikolla

this week

aamulla / illalla

in the morning / in the evening

aina / usein / joskus

always / often / sometimes

harvoin / en koskaan

rarely / never

sitten ('ago') follows a duration or date; a plain length of time needs no extra word for 'for' at all; and asti/saakka ('until') pair with the noun in the illative case.

kaksi tuntia sitten

two hours ago

A duration in the partitive (following the normal number + partitive singular rule) plus sitten.

vuosi sitten

a year ago

Without a number, the plain nominative is used before sitten.

Asuin siellä kaksi vuotta.

I lived there for two years.

A length of time is simply stated in the partitive (after a number) with no extra word for 'for' needed.

maanantaihin asti / saakka

until Monday

asti and saakka both mean 'until / up to' and pair with the noun in the illative case.

kello kolmeen asti

until three o'clock

Spoken Finnish shortens common pronouns and verb forms, and very often substitutes the passive for the standard 'we' form (me mennään instead of me menemme).

minä → mä

I

sinä → sä

you

me menemme → me mennään

we go (spoken Finnish uses the passive)

hän → se

he / she (in speech)

he → ne

they (in speech)

tämä → tää

this

tuo → toi

that

minun → mun

my

sinun → sun

your

minulla on → mulla on

I have

en ole → en oo

I'm not

ei ole → ei oo

there isn't / it isn't

yksi → yks, kaksi → kaks

one, two

Official letters, applications, complaints, formal emails Markers: Use Te / Teidän (capital T) for formal 'you'; Full verb forms, no contractions; Start: Hyvä herra/rouva / Arvoisa + name; Close: Ystävällisin terveisin / Kunnioittavasti; Avoid the me-passive (me mennään → menemme).

Hyvä asiakaspalvelu, Haluan ilmoittaa ongelmasta tilaukseeni liittyen.

Formal (kirjakieli)

Work emails, messages to an employer, replies to a service Markers: sinä / te (lowercase) is fine; Direct, clear language; Start: Hei / Hyvä + first name; Close: Ystävällisin terveisin / Terveisin.

Hei Matti, Kiitos viestistäsi. Voin osallistua kokoukseen.

Semi-formal (neutraali)

Messages to friends, casual community posts, conversational writing tasks Markers: mä / sä (colloquial I / you) are fine; Contractions: mä, sä, tää, se on; Start: Hei! / Moi! / Heippa!; Close: Terveisiä / Heippa / Nähdään!.

Hei Liisa! Miten sä voit? Nähdään perjantaina!

Informal (puhekieli / arkikieli)

Quick messages to friends/family; recognising this style is important for listening and reading, even though writing tasks rarely ask for it Markers: Heavy abbreviation: t. (terveisin), kiitos → kiitti/kiitoz, joo/joo joo for 'yeah'; Numbers replace syllables informally in very casual texts: esim. 'mä tuun 8' instead of full sentences; Vowels dropped or doubled for tone: 'moi moi', 'juu', 'hyvvää'; Minimal punctuation, emoji instead of closing phrases; Still uses puhekieli pronouns (mä, sä) underneath the abbreviations.

moi! tuutko 8? 😊

Texting / chat (tekstiviestityyli)

Hyvä asiakaspalvelu,

Dear customer service,

Kirjoitan teille koskien...

I am writing to you regarding...

Haluaisin tiedustella...

I would like to enquire about...

Toivon pikaista vastaustanne.

I hope for a prompt reply.

Ystävällisin terveisin,

Kind regards,

Rakas Matti,

Dear Matti,

Toivottavasti voit hyvin.

I hope you are well.

Kirjoitan sinulle, koska...

I am writing to you because...

Odotan innolla tapaamistamme.

I look forward to seeing you.

Lämpimin terveisin,

With warm greetings,

Olen sitä mieltä, että...

I am of the opinion that...

Mielestäni...

In my opinion...

Toisaalta...

On the other hand...

On kuitenkin huomattava, että...

It should be noted, however, that...

Kaiken kaikkiaan...

All in all...

Kuvaan tässä...

Here I describe...

Se sijaitsee...

It is located...

Erityisesti kannattaa huomioida...

It is especially worth noting...

Lisäksi...

In addition...

Loppujen lopuksi...

In the end / Ultimately...

Hei!

Hey!

Oletko kuullut, että...?

Have you heard that...?

Ehdotan, että...

I suggest that...

Sopii minulle.

That works for me.

Otetaan yhteyttä!

Let's stay in touch!

Ensinnäkin...

Firstly...

Sen lisäksi...

In addition to that...

Toisaalta... toisaalta...

On one hand... on the other...

Esimerkiksi...

For example...

Yhteenvetona...

In summary...

kaksi kissaa

Avoid: kaksi kissa

Numbers above one are followed by the partitive singular, not the nominative.

En syö leipää

Avoid: En syö leipä

The object of a negative verb takes the partitive case.

kahvissa

Avoid: kahvissä

Vowel harmony: words with back vowels (a, o, u) take -a endings, never -ä.

Menen kotiin

Avoid: Menen kotona

Movement towards a place needs the illative (into), not the inessive (in).

Tulen kaupasta

Avoid: Tulen kaupassa

Use the elative (-sta) for movement away from a place. The -ssa ending means staying 'in'.

Pidän kahvista

Avoid: Pidän kahvi

The verb pitää (to like) takes the elative case: pitää jostakin.

Odotan bussia

Avoid: Odotan bussi

The verb odottaa (to wait for) takes a partitive object.

He menevät

Avoid: He menee

The third person plural needs the -vat / -vät ending, not the singular form.

Minulla on auto

Avoid: Minä on auto

Possession uses the adessive plus olla: 'minulla on' means 'I have'.

sinun kanssasi

Avoid: kanssa sinä

Postpositions such as kanssa follow the genitive and take a possessive suffix.

Opin suomea lukemalla

Avoid: Opin suomea lukea

'By doing' needs the III infinitive -malla/-mällä, not the basic infinitive.

Soitan ystävälle

Avoid: Soitan ystävään

Soittaa (to call) takes the allative (-lle), since the object is a person, not a place.

Muutan Suomeen

Avoid: Muutan Suomelle

Movement into a country/place needs the illative (-Vn/-hVn/-seen), even though it 'feels' like a destination for a person too.

Hänellä on monta ystävää

Avoid: Hänellä on monta ystäviä

Monta takes a singular partitive in this counting construction: monta ystävää. Muutama instead has nominative muutama ystävä or an inflected phrase such as muutaman ystävän. Paljon can take singular mass nouns or plural count nouns: paljon työtä, paljon ystäviä.

Hän sanoi, että hän tulee

Avoid translating literally to a past-shifted English-style clause

Finnish reported speech does not backshift tense like English. Keep the original tense after että.

Olen kiinnostunut historiasta

Avoid: Olen kiinnostunut historiaa

Olla kiinnostunut (to be interested) takes the elative case (-sta/-stä), not the partitive.